Insights into English Discourse:

 
 
 
Insights into English Discourse
di Melissa Gattoni
 
Appunti sul testo "Insights into English Discourse" utilizzato per l'esame di
linguistica inglese.
 
Esame: Linguistica Inglese
Titolo del libro: Insights into English Discourse
Autore del libro: Cucchi Costanza e Pedrola Monica
Editore: Educatt - Università Cattolica
Anno pubblicazione: 20101. Discourse, text and the notion of texture
 
 
The aim of the DISCOURSE ANALYSIS is to analyse the way texts work across the boundaries of single
sentences or utterances to form whole stretches of language (rather than a collection of unrelated sentences).  
The word TEXT and DISCOURSE mean different things. To understand what is actually meant by the term
DISCOURSE, Renkema and Carter suggest considering its etymology. The basic meaning of discourse in
modern ordinary usage is talk. Originally, the term came from the Medieval Latin term discurrere (meaning
to circulate or to run on). It has been more frequently used to refer to prepared forms of spoken language
such as speeches, where people run on about a topic, than to spontaneous talk. The modern meaning of
discourse has evolved to encompass casual conversations, which just like formal speeches, run from one
person to another: speakers make an effort to give their interactions shape and connectedness, as an integral
part of co-operating with another speaker to create meaning. A useful metaphor to understand the term
'discourse' is that of weaving (tessitura), whereby speakers can be seen tomwork together in the same way as
weavers that work together to create a pattern in some fabric (the weaving metaphor is used in some
expressions such as 'losing the thread of conversation'). The term discourse is now used also for written
texts, in fact also written language runs on. 
The word TEXT, coming from the Latin term texere, originally meant 'something that is woven' and we can
see a close relationship between text, textile (capable of being woven) and texture (having the qualify of
woven cloth). The notion of texture was introduced by Halliday and Hasan to express the property of being a
text. A text has texture and this is what distinguishes it from something that is not a text. A text derives its
texture from the fact that it functions as unity with respect to its environment.  
Halliday and Hasan define text as 'a unit of language in use': a text is viewed not as a grammatical unit (a
clause or a sentence) but as a semantic unit, so a unit of meaning, not a unit of form. 
If a stretch of language including more than one sentence is perceived as a text, there will be certain
linguistic features contribuiting to its total unity and giving it texture. A text is not a collection of unrelated
sentences. The existence of CONNECTIONS between sentences is an essential features of discourse:
connections give a text its texture and distinguish it from a random string of unconnected sentences.  
To this texture to be achieved two main concepts are used: Cohesion and Coherence. 
Cohesion: it refers to the connections which have their manifestation in the discourse itself 
Coherence: it refers to the connections that can be made by the listener or by the reader on the basis of their
knowledge outside the discourse. 
Melissa Gattoni Sezione Appunti
Insights into English Discourse 2. Cohesion
 
Cohesion is a semantic notion indicating relations of meaning established within a text. Cohesion occurs
where the interpretation of some elements in the discourse is dependent on that of another. This implies the
existence of two elements: the presupposing and the presupposed --> to be interpreted, the former depends
on the latter --> a cohesive tie is established between the presupposing and the presupposed items.  
Cohesive relations are realized partly through grammar and partly through lexis, vocabulary. So, we can talk
about grammatical cohesion (as at least one element in the tie is a grammatical word) or of lexical cohesion
(since the tie involves the presence of content words). 
Halliday and Hasan identify five main ways by which cohesion is achieved in English: 
- reference 
- substitution 
- ellipsis 
- conjunction 
- lexical organization.
Melissa Gattoni Sezione Appunti
Insights into English Discourse 3. Reference
 
 
 
To refer means 'to send for information', 'to seek information'.  
This is exactly the principle at work in reference within texts, whereby readers can make sense of given
word or phrase by looking elsewhere in the text to obtain a fuller picture.  
Reference is a semantic relationship and signals the relation between a discourse item and a preceding or
following item.  
The discourse items are: 
a) personal pronouns, I - you - she - he - they - me - us 
b) demonstratives, this - that - here - there - now - then 
c) the definite article THE 
d) comparatives. 
 
Reference can be of two different types: exophoric or situational (referring to an item as identified in the
extralinguistic situation accompanying the text) and endophoric or textual (referring to an item as
identified in the surrounding text). 
Ex: "Please don't do THAT while I'm trying to work" --> here, THAT refers to an element contained in the
extralinguistic situation or content, whose nature is not made explicit within the text. This type of reference
is said to be EXOPHORIC. 
      "True to his nature, James started whistling to himself as soon as she settled down to work. 'Please don't
do THAT while I'm trying to work' she begged. --> here, THAT refers to an element which is clearly
retrievable from the surrounding text (also known as context). This type of reference is said to be
ENDOPHORIC. It is this type of reference which creates cohesion in the text.  
When ENDOPHORIC, reference may be ANAPHORIC (referring to the preceding text --> several people
approached. They seemed angry) or CATAPHORIC (referring to the following text --> Listen to this: John
is getting married). 
 
a) Personal pronouns reference 
Personal pronouns substitute for nouns. These pronouns are of personal nature: they will be referring to
people; however, 'it, they-them' may also refer to non-human entities and inanimate objects. 
John said that HE was not going to school (anaphoric) 
I couldn't believe IT! The house was a complete wreck (cataphoric). 
 
Lack of cohesion is at the basis of much ambiguity in a text. 
Sometimes the disruption of pronouns cohesion is deliberately sought by writers in order to achieve certain
effects, for example to create a mysterious atmosphere. 
 
b) Demonstratives reference (deictis) 
Items such as this, that, those, there, here, then, now etc. are known as deictis, which function as a kind of
"verbal pointer", demonstrating where something is. Demonstrative reference can be anaphoric or
cataphoric. 
Melissa Gattoni Sezione Appunti
Insights into English Discourse  
c) The definite article THE 
Reference can also be achieved by the use of a definite article or adverb: 
"A man crossed the street. Nobody saw what happened. Suddenly, THE man was lying there and calling for
help." 
"I was born in war time. When THE war ended...." 
 
d) Comparative reference 
Comparative reference implies not only that we should look elsewhere for information, but that we should
look for it in order to compare the items that are being linked. Usually the reference point for the
comparison being made is given in the text:  Mary is TALLER THAN Jennie. 
However, the reference point can also be omitted, by leaving out the element that the mentioned item is
being compared with. This cohesive device is often found in advertising, where comparative reference is
incomplete: THE MILDER TOBACCO, KINDER TO THE ENVIRONMENT.  
Melissa Gattoni Sezione Appunti
Insights into English Discourse 4. Substitution
 
 
 
Substitution involves the replacement of one item by another in the text. Replaced items may be a
word(group) or a sentence, while replacing items are PRO-FORMS such as ONE,  ONES, DO, SO. This
type of substitution is a way to make texts more concise by avoiding tedious repetitions<<<<<<<<<<. 
"My axe is too blunt. I must get a sharper ONE" 
"Is it going to rain? I think SO". 
One: replaces nouns 
Do: it is used to replace verbs 
So: it is more often used to replace whole clauses. 
 
 
An important point is the difference between Substitution and Reference. According to Halliday and Hasan,
substitution is a relation in the wording, while reference is a relation in the meaning. Reference is placed on
the semantic level, while substitution is a relation on the lexico-grammatical level.  
Substitution is a relation within a text: a substitute is used in place of the repetition of a particular item. The
substitute item has the same structural function as that for which it substitutes. 
Axe and one are both head in the nominal group: My axe is too blunt. I must get a sharper one. 
Does and know are noth head in the verbal group: You think John already knows? I think everybody does. 
 
In reference, there is no such restriction, and the structural function of a reference item MAY be quite
different from that of its referens: If our commanders say we need troops, I will send THEM. 
 
Melissa Gattoni Sezione Appunti
Insights into English Discourse