The cultural legacy of the Torino Olympic Games 2006

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CHAPTER 1: CULTURAL LEGACY DEFINITION 
 
Introduction 
This paper explores the cultural impacts that are affecting the city of Torino after the 
staging of the Olympic Games in 2006. Cultural impacts are analyzed and defined in 
order to provide a clear framework for future mega sports events. In fact Olympic 
games are the oldest type of "world events", and their analysis can be very helpful 
for the study of other events as well: like UNESCO cultural capitals, Expo's, G8 
meetings.  
J. MacAloon ( 2002) stated that culture is not just one aspect of the Olympic legacy, 
it is the ultimate source of all other forms
1
. When the Olympic games leave behind 
public improvements, sports installations, facilities, infrastructures, foundation funds, 
or permanent art, they do so because the Games are first and foremost accumulated 
cultural capital. If the culture is the factor that groups all the other forms of legacies, 
I want to seek to determine if it is possible to talk about a new kind of legacy, called 
"cultural", by analyzing and lumping together some of the categories that usually are 
utilized by the authors. Mega events and global sports culture provides cultural 
resources for reflecting upon identity and for the construction of a meaningful social 
life
2
So far this study has investigated the meaning of the expression "Cultural Legacy": a 
definition will be provided since is impossible to find a specific meaning in the 
literature, and the weight of its management as achievement factor is deeply 
. The sets of values promoted, the human capital involved, studies for 
improvements, and better quality of lives are the best opportunities to harmonize the 
world. Therefore a legacy called "cultural" has to enter in the common terminology 
used by Olympic managers. No matter if it is intangible, not measurable in concrete 
terms; the effects that such legacy has over the worldwide population are enormous.  
                                                            
1
 J. J. MacAloon, "Cultural legacy: the Olympic Games as "World cultural property". The legacy of the 
Olympic Games 1984-2000, International Symposium Lausanne, 2002 p271 
2
 J. Horne, W. Manzenreiter, Sports Mega-events. Social scientific analyses of a global phenomenon 
pp.1
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analyzed by the study of the modern Olympic Games, more specifically that of the 
Winter edition in Torino in 2006. 
Starting from a general investigation of the meaning of the word "legacy" inside of 
the Mega Events category this text will then focus on the "Cultural legacy" 
explanation by set specific variables delivering a well-defined area of significance. 
Using an ex post analysis I'll seek to determine, through the interviews made by me 
with the experts team and from a comparative analysis including cities like Barcelona 
and Vancouver, the short and long term development that is affecting the city of 
Torino. The Torino Olympic Games are deeply studied because they had an 
extraordinary chance to forge a new urban identity and because the post-Olympic 
legacy has been one of their top priorities since the bidding phase
3
The tools that I've used for the analysis of this thesis are:  
. The impacts of 
this Winter Games are under way still now, thus managers are still working on that 
heredity. Additionally the Torino Winter 2006 case is more interesting because "is 
following the same and broader development problems experienced by cities that 
have been hosting major summer Olympics in the past" ( Preuss 2000).  
a) A Questionnaire
4
b) A Stakeholder Analysis, ( 3.1.2) as a conceptual map being able to show and 
clarify the relationship and roles present in the complex Olympic organization, to 
identify their successful relationships and criteria, and turning these into quality 
goals. 
 ( see chapter 3.4), as qualitative instrument to get the opinion of 
specialists; 
The perspective on a legacy’s success depends on who is making the assessment. As 
the Olympic Games involve a complex network of stakeholders then each of these 
may have a different perspective. Stakeholder analyses are arguably more important 
than ever because of the increasingly interconnected nature of the world. 
                                                            
3
 V. Castellani, "Torino 2006.Planning and Organizing Olympic Legacy", The legacy of the Olympic 
Games 1984-2000, International Symposium Lausanne, 2002 pp. 419  
4
 Appendix 3
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c) The SWOT analysis
5
 
, as comparative and visual tool for the cultural legacy of the 
Olympic Cities that I've analyzed. SWOT stands for strengths, weaknesses, 
opportunities, and threats: strengths and weaknesses are internal factors; 
opportunities and threats are external factors. 
1.1 What is a legacy?  
 
There is a lack of agreement and coherence on the definition of the legacy's concept. 
Legacy relates to prudent and sustainable planning and assuring that outcomes are 
achieved. The idea of continuity, of handing over, is fundamental to the Olympic 
principles and to that of "legacy". It includes "the remains of the games", the 
"emotional" residue of them. The "legacies" - whether social, cultural, environmental, 
political, economic or sporting- are the greatest attraction but also form part of the 
"known unknowns" of sports mega-events (Horne 2007). They can be determined 
by: a) benchmarking (based on past experiences used during the planning); b) 
macro-economic indicators (usually used ex-post). There are many types of impacts 
to consider ( positive and negative):
6
From these impacts the categories
 alterations in design of the city; changes to the 
physical and the built environment; the representation of a city and country and its 
culture; improvements in air, road and rail transport; increased costs and taxes; 
changes in governance and public decision-making; innovations in politics and 
political relationships; potential increased tourism and business activity; the creation 
of new sporting venues which have potential for post-Games community use; the 
potential of greater community consultation; the involvement of the community as 
volunteers. 
7
                                                            
5
 The technique is credited to Albert Humphrey, at Stanford University in the 1960. 
 that are usually classified by the authors are: 
economic, infrastructures, sport, public life/politics/culture, symbols/memory/history, 
6
 R. Cashman Impact of the Games on Olympic host cities. University lecture on the Olympics 
7
 H. Preuss, The Conceptualization and Measurement of Mega Sport Event Legacies
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education/information. The following box shows how the authors usually classify the 
different typologies of legacies as: 
Author Typologies 
 
• Cashman (1998) 
 
a) Economic (direct & indirect) 
b) Built environment (non-sporting) 
c) Information & education 
d) Public life, politics & culture 
e) Sport (Elite performance; Mass participation - the 'trickle 
down' effect; Financial support) 
f) Built sporting infrastructure 
g) Sporting symbols, memory, history. 
 
• Jean-Loup 
Chappelet (2000) 
 
a) Tourism and economic legacy 
b) Infrastructure legacy 
c) Sports facilities legacy 
d) Urban and natural environment legacy 
e) Socio-cultural and communications legacy 
 
• Malfas (2004) 
This author is not 
using the term 
legacy; but lists the 
categories as 
impacts: 
 
a) socio-economic 
b) socio-cultural 
c) Physical  
d) political 
 
Usually there is general agreement on what the main impacts are, with the only 
difference in the way they are grouped or categorized. However since 2000 more 
studies and IOC regulations/improvements were done in this direction
8
                                                            
8
 See chapter 2.1.3: The OGGI program promoted by the IOC 
. The issue of
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legacy in fact has only fairly recently been brought to academic and practitioner 
attention.  
The box shows how the importance of the cultural legacy is recognized but never 
"isolated" from other aspects by the authors. This may be because ‘as a cultural 
phenomenon they appear to fall within and between a number of distinct and 
unrelated disciplines and areas’ (Roche, 2000).  
Nevertheless, considering legacy in the widest possible terms, five dimensions of 
legacy are suggested
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1. The degree of planned/unplanned structure. For example, planned infrastructures 
are the extension of new attractions (museums, etc) while a bomb attack is 
unplanned. 
: 
2. The degree of positive/negative structure. The classification of a legacy is a 
valuation that may address the stakeholders in a negative or positive way. 
3. The degree of tangible/intangible structure.  
4. The duration of a changed structure. The duration of legacy can be very long (e.g.  
infrastructures) or rather short (e.g. cultural festivals). 
5. The space affected by the changed structure. For example, the city centre of the 
Olympic Games host city often benefits more from image and re-urbanization than 
other locations in the city. 
Derived from the above, the following definition of legacy is proposed:  
Irrespective of the time of production and space, legacy is all planned and 
unplanned, positive and negative, tangible and intangible structures created for and 
by a sport event that remain longer than the event itself. Each new Olympiad is 
simultaneously a depiction of the global present, a recapturing of the past, and a 
rehearsal of the future of the entire Olympic heritage
10
 
. 
                                                            
9
 ibid. note 1  
10
 ibid. note 1
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1.2 Legacy's categories  
 
As already mentioned above, a set of different typologies of impacts are generated 
by the organization of the Olympic Games. By using the Guy Masterman list, the 
following nine impacts are usually engendered by a Mega event: 
 
a) Land regeneration: 
During the planning phase some areas as a rule are regenerated ( i.e. Barcelona ); 
as a result of this action, the impact results in making the city more livable due to an 
inner development in job opportunities, quality of life, social activities and  economic 
growth. 
b) Facilities and services: 
During the Olympic event new facilities for the sport competitions are built, but also 
media villages, accommodation for the athletes, the transportation system is 
renovated or improved ( IOC 2002), and more services are provided. The after-game 
use of those infrastructures and services determines the real impact of the Games: 
Torino, for example, set up these facilities "two years prior to the Games"
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c) Social regeneration: 
. The goal 
of the Olympic towns usually is to avoid the creation of "white elephants", like the 
Olympic Montreal Stadium 1976. 
This means focusing on the creation of social activities and job opportunities. The 
effects of this aspect can be seen by the presence of several factors: specialists, 
employment opportunities, sport and social activities, social cohesion, housing and 
facilities. The good management of those resources can contribute to the creation of 
a generally impressive image for the city. 
 
                                                            
11
 G. Masterman, Strategic Sports events management. An international approach. page 71
17 
 
d) Political development: 
As a result of the hosting  the Olympic Games the local political entities can develop 
their prestige, get more exposure and can appear as more reliable to achieve the 
city's desired goals. Problems always stay in the inner struggles and competitiveness.  
e) Cultural development 
People all over the world are increasingly aware that creativity – that impulse and 
ability to think, feel, express and generate something original and meaningful - are 
necessary for a city to thrive
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By organizing the Olympic Games great many efforts are made to attract other 
locally or internationally recognized sports events. The impacts can be seen as: more 
visibility for the city, attraction of new audience ( media, athletes..), sharing of sports 
values (as fair play, excellence, respect), shared proud for local athletes. 
. The cultural impacts are basically focused on the 
increase of the cultural capital, the organization of more cultural events, and 
attracting tourism. This can be best reached by embedding  local culture in the 
games in order to highlight its uniqueness (B. Garcìa). Culture is seen as a critical 
dimension of development, a benchmark of maturity, sophistication and tolerance. 
g) Environmental development:  
The environmental protection and creation of a cleaner space are important issues 
that are implemented during the staging of the Games in order to provide a pleasant 
picture of the city. The post event phase has to continue delivering this image with a 
focus on sustainability factors in order to foster an always better quality of life. The 
risk to stay away from is to destroy the environment or bother the existent one 
(Torino, in this case, used the SEA project:  Strategic environmental assessment). 
h) Economic development: 
The expenditures have to be justified: in the past so many Olympic Games were not 
properly planned and consequently they created huge debts ( i.e. Montreal 76'). The 
first Olympic Games that were able to close with a surplus were those in Los Angeles 
                                                            
12
 Cultural Plan 2008 pfd (Vancouver " Creative city")
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in 1984; since that date, cities are fighting to win their bids and host the Olympic 
Games. It's not just a matter of visibility but all the sponsors involved, the 
renovation, the investments and resources available if well managed can really 
change the future of the host town. It's important to keep in mind that it is a must to 
be realistic and consider the long term economic impacts: the investment in too 
giant/ambitious projects has to be avoided. 
i) Tourism 
Lastly, the touristic impacts can be determined by the boost of media attention, the 
creation of new events, the quality of the services provided by the city, more jobs in 
the service sector and better opportunities for the city. 
 
Despite the importance that every of those aspects have for each Olympic City, I will 
focus my thesis just on the cultural one because culture is the cornerstone upon 
which vibrant, competitive and creative industries are built.  
In 2002 the IOC has also engaged seriously with legacy in an academic way, 
beginning with a ‘legacy symposium’ in Lausanne (Cashman 2004). The conclusions 
of the 2002 IOC International Symposium on Legacy of the Olympic Games, 1894- 
2000, stated: 
After hearing papers talking about different experiences from games and cities, the 
idea emerged that the effects of the legacy have many aspects and dimensions, 
ranging from the more commonly recognized aspects – architecture, urban planning, 
city marketing, sports infrastructures, economic and tourist development– to others 
that are just as, if not more important, but that are less recognized.  
In particular, it is necessary to point out the importance of so called intangible 
legacies, such as production of ideas and cultural values, intercultural and non-
exclusionary experiences (based on gender, ethnicity or physical abilities), popular 
memory, education, archives, collective effort and voluntarism, new sport 
practioners, notoriety on a global scale, experience and know-how, etc. These
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intangible legacies also act as a motor for the tangible ones to develop a long-term 
legacy (IOC, 2004: p.2). 
Just by having a look at the websites
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 dedicated to the Olympic Games of this year 
in Vancouver, it's evident how the culture is turning out to be one of the most 
managed and supervised legacies. In fact, day after day it is more agreed upon that 
a community climate that nurtures the artistic creation creates a fertile ground for 
inspiring innovation on a broader economic and social scale.  
1.3 The importance of the cultural sphere in sport events 
 
The Olympic Games are unique in their ability to present a host nation and city to the 
world. No other sport event, or any type of event, offers such a global stage. Mega 
events (including sport events) are defined by Maurice Roche (2000) as "cultural 
events"; in fact he uses the term "cultural legacy" under a social aspect and 
considering the global society. As globalization intensifies, sport is increasingly being 
used as medium for the affirmation of cultural identities.  
This becomes more obvious in the case of major sports events, given the enormous 
media attention that they attract. Sports and Olympic culture provide a special 
system of social organization and of cultural events and exchanges in which some of 
the international dimensions of human society in the contemporary period can be 
experienced in forms of communication. Therefore the success of major sports 
events should not be measured in economic and tangible terms only but also in 
social and cultural impact (Hall 1997). The three pillars of the Olympic ideals are 
sport, culture and respect. The five Olympic values are: sportsmanship; education; 
exceeding one's expectations; solidarity; peace and happiness.  
But culture in Olympic Games is not just promotion of global principles. What I want 
to point out is the implementation of such values into the distinctiveness of the 
location ( in this case Torino), to see which new solutions were implemented, which 
                                                            
13
 http://www.2010legaciesnow.com/
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one is working and which is not, what advices can be given to other Olympic 
managers in terms of good management, and which cultural models can be used for 
other events in Italy or for other Winter Games. Culture is the driving factor that 
makes it possible to bring distinction to the globalization era. Roche also suggests 
that globalization can involve particularization, and calls it "glocalisation"
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Focusing on the cultural sphere, culture is understood here according to the 
definition now dominant in cultural organizations like UNESCO. Culture is described 
as " the sum total of historically transmitted symbols and meanings by which social 
groups make sense of their worlds is at last making its way into the discourse of 
Olympic Culture and Education Commissions"
. 
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. The same UNESCO asserted that " 
the intangible heritage has gained international recognition as a vital factor in 
cultural identity, promotion of creativity, and the preservation of cultural diversity. It 
plays an essential role in national and international development, tolerance, and 
harmonious interaction between cultures". 
1.4 Toward a definition of cultural legacy 
 
Sports events and the reactions they generate are "clearest manifestations of culture 
and collective identities in a given society" (Nauright 1996). Many of the benefits 
from sport events fall into the category of the “public good”, such as increased 
access to or participation in sport, arts and culture, civic pride, or improvements to 
quality of life. Many authors (Spilling (2000) and Allen et al (2002)) in fact mistake 
the cultural impact for the social one which results in mixing up factors and  not 
paying enough attention to the impacts that can be properly defined as cultural.  
The term "society" in fact refers to the totality of social relationships among humans: 
to living in a community by sharing models of organization (social classes, problems). 
In other words the experiential, interactional and institutional differentiation of the 
                                                            
14
 ibid. note 5 
15
 Source Eurobarometer